Once exploration or surface survey establishes the archaeological importance of a site, archaeologists dig carefully for buried objects in a process called excavation. The method of excavation adopted depends partly on the type of site. One such widely used excavation method is vertical trenching or vertical digging. The archaeological team earmarks a few locations on the site for vertical digging. As the digging progresses, buried objects found in different layers of soil are properly recorded against each layer of the soil. This process of analysing the order and position of layers of archaeological remains is called stratigraphy and it helps unravel how different cultures and settlements existed in a particular location over a long period of time.
Generally, digging is undertaken until the undisturbed virgin soil is reached. Tools used in excavation range from tractors and other heavy equipment to small spicks and paint brushes. In some cases, the scientists strain soil through wire screens to recover extremely small objects. In other cases, they analyse soil in a laboratory to detect either grains of pollen or chemical changes caused by human remains.
As and when the objects of archaeological significance are unearthed, the scientists describe, photograph, and group them according to type and location. For example, broken pieces of pottery, called potsherds, are bagged together by excavation team. This collection then goes to the field laboratory to be cleaned and labelled.
At the field laboratory, special care is taken to reserve objects made of metals and wood. For example, rust on a metal object is removed without damaging the surface. Water-soaked wooden objects may crack or lose their shape when exposed to the air and sunlight; so, these are kept wet until specialists called conservators can preserve them.
Archaeologists generally follow three basic steps in interpreting the evidence they find: (i) classification, (ii) dating and (iii) evaluation.
Archaeologists can interpret their findings only if they can detect patterns of distribution of artifacts in space or through time. To find these patterns, archaeologists first classify artifacts into groups of similar objects. Two main systems of classification are typology and seriation. In typology, objects are grouped according to what they look like, how they were made, and how they were used. In seriation, all objects of one type are arranged in a series that reflects changes in style. These changes either developed gradually as time passed or as a culture spread to other areas.
Archaeologists use various methods to determine the age of ancient objects. These methods can divided into two major types -- relative dating and absolute dating. Relative dating gives information about the age of an object in relation to other objects. Thus, relative dating methods produce only comparisons, not actual dates. For example, archaeologists can determine the relative ages of bones found at a site by measuring their fluorine content.
In contrast, absolute dating determines the age of an object in years. There are many absolute dating methods. The method used in a specific case depends mainly on the type of object being dated. The most widely used method of dating the remains of ancient plants, animals and human beings is radiocarbon dating. This technique is based on the fact that all living things constantly absorb two kinds of carbon atoms, carbon 12 and carbon 14. Atoms of carbon 14, also called radiocarbon, are unstable and change into nitrogen atoms as a known rate. After an organism dies, therefore, the ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 also decreases at a known rate. As a result, archaeologists can compute the age of a specimen by measuring the amounts of carbon 12 and carbon 14 present. This traditional method of measurement can be accurate as far back as 50,000 years. A newer method, using a device called particle accelerator, is accurate up to 60,000 years even with the tiniest specimens.
Similarly, to date rock pieces scientists use potassium-argon dating. Rocks generally contain radioactive potassium 40, which changes into argon 40 gas at a constant rate. Scientists measure the amount of both potassium 40 and argon 40 gas present and then calculate the age of the rock. The best-known method for dating wood is called dendrochronology, which counts the yearly growth rings visible on cross sections of cut trees. But the problem with dendrochronology is that it can be used only with wooden objects up to about 8,000 years.
Can archaeology help resolve religious disputes? It might be difficult. For instance, the controversy surrounding the Shroud of Turin, part of a cloak Catholics believe was used to cover the body of Jesus Christ after crucification. While carbon testing dated its origins between 1290 and 1360, this has not yet been accepted by the believers.