Death is in the air

Death is in the air

the number of people dying in urban India due to deteriorating air quality is rising every year and very little is being done to deal with pollution in Indian cities. A stupendous 51,779 people are estimated to have died prematurely in 36 Indian cities due to air pollution in 1995 as against 40,351 in 1991-92 -- a rise of 28 per cent over the three-four year period. Calcutta, Delhi, Mumbai, Kanpur and Ahmedabad account for 10,647, 9,859, 7023, 3,639, 3,006 premature deaths respectively (see Table: The body count). This accounts for 66 per cent of total premature deaths in India. The number of air pollution-related ailments requiring medical treatment and hospital admissions have sky-rocketed to 25 million cases, indicating an increasingly ruined state of health in Indian cities. The estimate was 19 million in 1991-92.

In Calcutta and Delhi, cases of hospital admissions and sicknesses requiring medical treatment due to air pollution have almost doubled in a span of three years, crossing the five million mark in 1995 (see Table: Quick, but ill). Disturbing trends are also emerging in Kanpur, Chennai and Ahmedabad. The main culprit is suspended particulate matter (spm), dust and ash particles sometimes laden with toxic chemicals. The primary sources of spm are power plants, industrial units and auto emissions. spm levels in the above-mentioned cities are three to five times higher than the acceptable limit set by the World Health Organization (who). Dust particles less than 10 micron in diameter -- known as pm 10 and pm 2.5 -- can penetrate lungs easily and are detrimental to human health. pm 10 has been associated with both premature mortality (death from respiratory illness and cardiovascular diseases) and increased morbidity (high incidence of chronic obstructive lung diseases, especially bronchitis and upper and lower respiratory tract infections).

Evaluation of these premature deaths suggests that economic and health costs due to growing levels of spm range between Rs 1,747 and 7,252 crore. Similarly, estimates of the monetary losses due to sicknesses caused by high levels of spm is between Rs 107 to 213 crore.

In a 1995 report titled Valuing Environmental Costs In India: The Economy Wide Impact Of Environmental Degradation , World Bank (wb) staffers Carter Brandon and Kirsten Homman formulated a model to establish the relationship between air pollution and human mortality and morbidity. The model was subsequently used to assess environmental and health conditions in India. Using air quality data for 1991-92 provided by the Central Pollution Control Board (cpcb) from 290 monitoring stations in 92 Indian cities and towns, they found that air pollution results in 40,351 premature deaths in India. Calcutta, Mumbai and Delhi accounted for 5,726 (14 per cent), 4,477 (11 per cent), and 7,491 (19 per cent) respectively. Substituting the cpcb air quality data for 1991-92 by the corresponding 1995 data, the figure for number of premature deaths increased to 51,779, an alarming increase by all standards.

As a follow-up to our research, Down To Earth (DTE) reporters visited selected cities such as Delhi, Calcutta, Pune, Bhopal and Agra. While Delhi and Calcutta were chosen to represent two major cities where air pollution due to high levels of spm has increased from 1991-92 to 1995 and possibly continues to increase, the other three cities (Pune, Bhopal and Agra) were visited to uncover the reasons why pollution could have decreased during the same period as reported by the cpcb . These visits also provided an account of the present status of air pollution and gave us some indication of the emerging trends in pollution-related health problems. And the picture that emerges is not pleasant at all.

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Delhi: the capital punishment

More people have died in Delhi between 1991 and 1995 by inhaling small suspended particles laden with toxic chemicals. The levels of spm spiralled dramatically from 367.9 micro gram per cubic metre (g/cum) in 1991 to 410.5 g/cum in 1995. spm levels in Delhi have crossed the annual average critical limit of 60 g/cum set by the who by five times and the average peak value has often reached the dangerous level of 1,400 g/cum.

An elementary source-wise inventory prepared by the cpcb for 1993-94 indicates that industrial units and thermal power plants are primarily responsible for the high levels of spm in Delhi, followed by vehicles. Industrial units account for 44.4 per cent of spm in Delhi, thermal power plants for 37.4 per cent, vehicles for 9.63 per cent and domestic sources for 8.89 per cent. This shows industrial units and the three thermal power plants in Delhi contribute about 81 per cent of spm in Delhi.

"But such an inventory is too simplistic and does not account for the extremely hazardous small particulate emission, mainly from vehicles, which is now emerging as the key health concern in the context of air pollution in Delhi," says S K Chhabra of the Patel Chest Institute, New Delhi, who has studied the health effects of air pollution on school children in Delhi. His study in 1995-96 establishes air pollution as one of the major causative factors behind the 10 to 12 per cent incidence of bronchial asthma in the age group 5 to 16 years.

Chhabra argues that discussing spm emissions as a generic problem from all sources diverts attention from the more lethal emission of small particulates -- pm 10 and pm 2.5 -- which are increasing significantly due to the rapid growth of the transport sector. who has classified these as thoracic particles as they have greater penetration due to their smaller size and get lodged deeper in the lower respiratory tract. Small particulate emission, mainly from diesel fuel combustion engines in vehicles and electricity generators, are coated with polyaromatic hydrocarbons that are carcinogens and can be fatal to humans.

Significantly, while reporting 40,000 premature deaths due to air pollution in Indian cities about three years ago, the wb study had stated categorically that small particulate emissions including pm 10, pm 2.5 and sulphur dioxide are responsible for over 95 per cent of the health damage. The incidence of respiratory diseases in Delhi is 12 times higher than the national average, guesses Naresh Trehan, head of the cardio-respiratory unit of Escorts Heart Institute, New Delhi.

Despite scientific evidence and the indicative trend in number of deaths and illnesses due to rising small particulate emission, no attention has been paid by the Indian air quality planners to generate information on the level of pm 10 and pm 2.5 in the ambient air. Not ready to shoulder the entire blame, D K Biswas, chairperson of the cpcb , defends his role. "We have reviewed the national ambient air quality standards in 1993 to include respirable particulate emission. According to our method, 40 per cent of the total spm is respirable. So any increase in it would automatically indicate the proportionate increase in respirable particulate emission." Another study published by the wb on air quality in Mumbai in 1996 provides field evidence to support the approximation that about half of the total spm comprises pm 10s. The study also makes the dramatic revelation that about 40 per cent of the pm 10s come from the transport sector.

In Delhi, there has been a major crack down on industrial units with a relocation order from the Supreme Court (sc), and piling of pollution control obligations on the thermal power plants to reduce air pollution. But there is no way to control the mobile sources of pollution in the city. Even cpcb officials admit that the prospect of a rising trend in diesel vehicles in Delhi has grave implications for small particulate emission. A 1993 cpcb report had indicated that diesel vehicles comprise 6 per cent of the total number of vehicles in Delhi that are responsible for 19 per cent of vehicular pollution. In an affidavit to the sc in response to a public interest petition on the air pollution in Delhi in November 1996, the Delhi state government had submitted that 100 per cent of particulate emissions from vehicles in Delhi came from diesel vehicles.

In the absence of more information on the total number of diesel vehicles in Delhi, a conservative proportionate increase of 6 per cent in subsequent years can be assumed. Estimates show that the number of diesel vehicles increased from 1,08,778 in 1991 to 1,68,000 in 1996. The number of diesel vehicles is likely to increase further in the coming years as diesel is heavily subsidised by the government. Most car manufactures in the country are introducing diesel models to give the customers the advantage of low running costs.

Clearly, the inability of the government to act on time and ensure substantial reduction in sulphur levels in diesel is responsible for high particulate emissions. In Western Europe, maximum sulphur level in diesel has been brought down to 0.05 per cent, whereas in India, even the targeted level -- to be met by the year 2000 -- is 0.25 per cent. The current level is one per cent. Although diesel with 0.25 per cent sulphur has been introduced in Delhi this year on a priority basis, it is inadequate to address the problem. The marginal improvement made in controlling emissions per vehicle with lowering of sulphur is negated by the rise in the total number of diesel vehicles.

The government policy of keeping diesel prices low is encouraging its use for other purposes as well. Particulate emissions from private and captive electricity generators using diesel in the power-starved capital is fast emerging as another cause of worry. Large-scale use of generator sets that mostly run on cheap diesel in both residential and industrial sectors is also responsible for an unaccounted load of small particulates. A public interest petition was filed in the Delhi High Court (hc) in 1996 demanding action to control pollution from generator sets. As power supply in Delhi falls woefully short of the demand, people are becoming increasingly dependent on generator sets.

The cpcb had recently informed the Delhi hc that about 0.15 million diesel generator sets operate in Delhi. These mainly comprise small and medium sets, with a few large ones. The small portable sets have a capacity to generate 0.5 to 2.51 kilo volt per hour (kvh) of power; the medium sets between 15 to 500 kvh ; and the large ones between 500 kvh to 5,000,000 kvh. The public interest petition on pollution from generator sets has caught the officials in cpcb , Delhi Pollution Control Committee (dpcc), and the Delhi Vidyut Board (dvb) napping. The officials do not have any information on the actual installed capacity of captive power generation in the city. Although a no-objection certificate from the dvb is mandatory for installing generator sets in both residential and industrial sector, this is largely ignored due to weak enforcement. Only 3,700 generator sets have been licensed by the dvb while cpcb says that about 1,50,000 generator sets are estimated to be operating in the capital.

B Sengupta is the additional director of the cpcb . "While acoustic standards have been prescribed for the generator sets to control noise pollution, no separate emission standards have been prescribed for generator sets," he says. "Emission from generators is a new and an emergent problem. We are now considering setting standards for the manufacturers of generator sets." Under court orders, cpcb along with the dpcc have begun testing actual emissions from generator sets. The 1991-94 period was marked by efforts to implement control measures to mop up pollution from the three thermal power plants in the city by upgrading their pollution control technology. Relocation of about 10,000 air polluting industrial units was also ordered. spm levels show a slight decline from 415.1 g/cum in 1994 to 410.5 g/cum in 1995.

But even Biswas is not ready to attribute this entirely to the pollution control measures. He puts in a word of caution. "Data for just one year should not be taken too seriously. The slight decline does not necessarily mean that the pollution load has come down. While explaining these small variations you need to take account of the meteorological conditions at the time of monitoring. Only a long time frame can adequately establish the trend in pollution." Implementation of the control measures in Delhi during this period has not been successful in making an adequate impact on the air quality. While the thermal power plants have been under pressure to upgrade their pollution control technology since 1992, polluting industrial units were served closure notices only in 1996.

If industrial units contribute about 44 per cent of spm in Delhi, closure of such a large number of industries in 1996 ought to have made some impact on spm levels in 1996-97.

cpcb officials refused to divulge any information on spm levels in 1996-97 in Delhi for reasons best known to them. Biswas refuses to elaborate on the possible impact of the closure of industrial units on spm levels in Delhi. "Relocation of industrial units might have brought down the overall pollution level in Delhi. But we cannot isolate this from other factors in explaining the trend in pollution," he comments. "There are other factors that are also responsible for high levels of spm . Construction activities including road constructions and resuspension (of dust particles) from a large network of unmetalled roads in Delhi cannot be ignored. These are dispersed, unaccounted for and are continually rising due to the urban boom."

Despite orders by the sc to close or relocate polluting industrial units in 1993 and official efforts to control industrial emissions, more than 12,000 additional units sprouted in Delhi between 1990 and 1994. Though all industries were closed officially in 1996, clandestine industrial operations are still reported (dte , Vol 3, No 1). Officials in dpcc admit that the closure notices have not been very effective. "I would be happy to know how many have actually closed down. I do not have any illusions. Unfortunately, I do not have the requisite staff strength to keep a close vigil," says I K Kapila, environment engineer at dpcc. The worst offenders in Delhi are the three thermal power plants at Rajghat, Indrapratsha and Badarpur. "Instead of dealing with so many industrial units, we should concentrate on the power plants. Just three power plants produce almost as much spm as 10,000 polluting units," says Kapila. The Rajghat Thermal Power Plant (rtps) was served a closure notice for continually exceeding the prescribed emission standards in 1992. According to dpcc officials, the plant did not operate within the prescribed norm of 150 g/cum for many months prior to the shut down (dte , Vol 1, No 18). The pollution load in the emissions from the plant was between 2,000 g/cum and 20,000 g/cum before 1993. The rtps was asked to lower its emission level to 900 g/cum by March 1993. dpcc officials avoid divulging any information regarding the present status of emissions. Biswas informs that even in 1995, the three thermal power plants together were spewing 30,000 tonnes of spm per day. In addition to stack emissions, dispersal of ash from the ash ponds also adds to the spm levels in Delhi. He feels that there could not have been much change in the subsequent years as the installed capacity of these plants and status of the pollution control measures have remained almost unchanged. On the other hand, Lalit Kapoor, environmental engineer at dpcc , claims that the power plants are meeting the standards more or less after they were asked to upgrade their electrostatic precipitators (esps, air pollution control devices) in the early 1990's. But the efficacy of the pollution control equipment that has since been upgraded is doubtful.

Officials at the National Thermal Power Corporation (ntpc), Badarpur, lament that their pollution control equipment is under extreme pressure due to the bad quality of coal that has 40 per cent ash. "Very high ash content in coal makes it the root of the problem," says M H Rao, environmental engineer at the plant. But Kapila does not accept this. "Even six years ago, the ash content in coal was 40 per cent. The pollution control system ought to have been designed with that in mind. Efficiency of esp is 99.997 per cent. The only problem is that of maintenance."

It is apparent that the authorities seem to be fighting a losing battle to control spm emissions from all sources in Delhi; that is if they are fighting the problem at all, which is not what it looks like.

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Agra: the beauty and the beast

The Taj Mahal is not the only thing monumental about Agra, so is the rising level of air pollution. Although data published by the Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board (uppcb) shows a decline in spm levels in the city between 1991 and 1994, it has steadily increased thereafter. Emissions from 70,000 generators used as a result of daily power shortages, increasing number of three-wheelers running on diesel and emissions from the Mathura Oil Refinery continue to be the major sources of high levels of spm in Agra.

The closure of 212 coal-based industrial units in 1993 and shifting out of a thermal power plant are possible reasons for the decline in spm levels between 1991 and 1994. But the reasons for the increase in pollution from 1994 to 1996 are not clear. Part of the blame goes to the frequent use of generators due to severe electricity shortages after the coal-based thermal power plant was shifted out.

Residents of Agra are of the opinion that the number of vehicles in the city have increased alarmingly over the past few years, although no data could be obtained on this. They blame diesel-run three-wheelers known as "Vikrams" that are the main source of public transport. One of the largest manufacturers of these vehicles is the Lucknow-based government-owned Scooters India Ltd (sil). A surprise test conducted on new vehicles out of the sil factory by the uppcb revealed that emissions from 15-20 per cent of the "Vikrams" were in violation of the minimal requirements of environmental safety. Government authorities also come in for flak for not dealing with vehicular air pollution effectively. The pollution under control (puc) certificates for vehicles can be obtained for a paltry fee of Rs 20 without taking the vehicles to the checking centre.

"On paper, the cpcb says that pollution has decreased. I don't know about scientific data, but judging by the health of my patients, I say that the level of pollution has definitely gone up," says Deepak Goyal, a physician in Agra. "The numbers and the severity of asthma cases has increased, as have cases of respiratory diseases, allergies and chronic bronchitis."

The views of residents indicate that hardly any steps have been taken to solve the problem of air pollution. And the steps taken have either been inadequate or have led to other problems. For example, the coal-based thermal power station has been shifted out of Agra. This has given rise to frequent power cuts thereby increasing the use generators. The Mathura refinery, located about 40 km north-west of Agra, has been dogged by controversy ever since it started functioning. "I feel the Mathura refinery surely contributes to air pollution in Agra. I have seen the Taj for the last 20 years and have noticed that the colour has definitely changed -- it has turned yellow," says Goyal. "I may not be able to explain how this has happened but it definitely has to do with pollution. Even though the refinery is about 35-40 km from the Taj, they have a chimney that is constantly emitting pollutants. The smoke is bound to stay in the atmosphere and cause detrimental effects sooner or later." Meanwhile, M K Dutta, senior technical services manager at the refinery, stressed that the pollution control equipment at the refinery has been upgraded and that the emissions are well within the acceptable standards. But he refused to provide data on the emission levels at present.

After the danger to the Taj was brought to public notice in 1983, no new coal-based industry has come up in Agra. In 1984, M C Mehta, an advocate who was given the Magsaysay Award this year, filed a public interest petition in the sc to save the Taj from air pollution. As a response to the petition, the sc ordered uppcb to submit a list of all polluting industrial units in Agra and Ferozabad in 1993. The list comprised 508 units that were subsequently issued notices by the uppcb . Of these, 212 units did not reply to the notice. They were served closure notices. Only the units that installed pollution control equipment are functioning at present.

In 1996, the sc ordered National Environment Engineering Research Institute (neeri), Nagpur, to conduct a study on coal-based brick kilns in the Taj trapezium area (a 10,400-km trapezium-shaped area covering the five districts of Agra). Following the survey, the Court ordered in May 1996 that all unlicensed brick kilns within 20 km radius of all significant monuments in the Taj trapezium area should be closed down by August 15, 1996. Consequently, the uppcb closed down 456 brick kilns.

On December 30, 1996, a sc verdict ordered that the 292 coal-based industrial units in Agra should either apply to the Gas Authority Of India Limited (gail) for a gas connection or to the Uttar Pradesh State Industrial Development Corporation (upsidc) for relocation. All the units had to stop using coal by April 30, 1997. However, in response to an appeal made by these units, the sc extended the deadline for stopping the use of coal by December 31, 1997. gail has been ordered to supply gas by that time. But gail has asked for its limit to be extended to March 1998 to complete its deadline of laying the pipelines.

As directed by the sc , a green belt has been developed in a 500-metre area around the Taj. A committee has been set up to visit the site every three months to monitor the progress. About 53,000 trees have already been planted. But the results of this will only be evident after a few years when the trees have grown. There are 12 battery-operated buses around the Taj. But the batteries of these buses have to be recharged for 12 hours after running for 70 km. Hence they cannot be used for long distances in the city. Construction of a 52 km-long ring road had been proposed to join the three national highways (nhs) -- nh 2, nh 3 and nh 11 -- whereby the heavy traffic can be diverted outside the city. A single lane of this road has already been constructed and the remaining work will be completed by 2000. Cooking gas connections are being issued to people on priority to prevent the use of coal for cooking. Gas is being supplied from Delhi. gail has laid the pipelines and the first phase of supply of gas will commence in the first week of November. The second and the third phase of supply will start in December and March respectively.

Rajeev Upadhyay, assistant scientific officer at the uppcb has some interesting suggestions to curb pollution. He feels that since supplying gas to Agra is quite easy, there is a possibility of a gas-based power station that will solve the problem of power-cuts, reducing the emissions from generators. Upadhyay strongly feels that the green belt should not be restricted to certain pockets around the Taj. It should cover areas all over the city.

Goyal suggests that public transport systems should be improved. The local buses that operate at present are not convenient because of their inefficiency in terms of timing and service. Tempos are the main source of transport -- and pollution. Old ones should be replaced with new ones that are less polluting, he reckons. Loans can be given to the tempo operators at affordable interest rates, he says.

Although levels of spm in 1997 from uppcb records are less than those for 1996, the figures are only for 6-7 months. Going by the past three years, there has been a rise in pollution and it can easily be said that the city is getting increasingly polluted. The effectiveness of shifting the thermal power plant in reducing the pollution load is compensated by the increased use of electricity generators.

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Calcutta: the killing streets

Calcutta has the dubious distinction of being placed sixth among the 41 most polluted cities of the world when it comes to spm levels, according to Global Pollution and Health , a report published in 1996 by who and the United Nations Environment Programme (unep). The figures speak for themselves. While the acceptable annual average level of spm by who standards is 60 g/cum, Calcutta's average was 344.3 g/cum in 1995. This increases significantly in the winter. According to a recent study by the West Bengal Pollution Control Board (wbpcb) and the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (aiihph), Calcutta, the spm count was as much as 1200 g/cum at Moulali, a major traffic intersection in central Calcutta.

Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in the number of lung diseases, asthma, and bronchitis. Monish Prodhan, a chest specialist in Calcutta, has also found the number of cancer cases to be increasing in the city. D P Ghosh is an ear, nose and throat specialist who has been practising in the city for more than 35 years. "With the increase in dust particles over the years, I've noticed an increase in sinus problems that also lead to ear and throat problems, sometimes even hearing loss," he says. "What is more alarming is that more than five per cent of the patients are school going children or young people (10-25 years) who ordinarily should not have asthma allergy. Allergic manifestation of chest congestion is also evident."

K J Nath, director of aiihph , agrees. "A random opinion among the general practitioners in Calcutta indicates a significant increase in bronchial problems and allergic asthma among children and respiratory and cardiovascular problems among adults. A number of psycho-behavioural effects are also reported."

The finger points to auto emissions, experts from different disciplines agree. Every decade it doubles, says Nath. The density of vehicles per km has increased from 344 in 1980-81 to 946 in 1990-91. What makes the situation worse is the fact that metalled roads make up for only 5.8 per cent of Calcutta's surface area. In Delhi, the figure stands at 25-30 per cent. As pointed out by researchers at the School of Environmental Studies, Jadavpur University (ju), Calcutta, the demographic nature of Calcutta makes for a disastrous situation. The city has the infrastructure to provide for 1 million people and caters to a population of 13.9 million. The density of population is 34,000 per sq km (who ideal is 2,500 per sq m) with only 1.86 sq m of open space per person approximately. With so many spilling on to the roads and the footpaths being taken over by hawkers, the roads are choked with vehicles moving at 20-25 km per hour. The fumes add to the high levels of spm. Based on an experimental study on animals, researchers at ju estimate that the amount of pollutants in the air inhaled by people around Gariahat junction of the city continuously for eight hours a day can cause cancer in 15 years. This puts hawkers and vendors, who spend long hours at the junction, at a very high health risk.

The number of two-wheelers have gone up by more than 300 per cent between 1982 and 1993 in the city, whereas the number of buses have increased by only 50 per cent, points out Nath. Adding to this are autorickshaws -- comparatively a new phenomenon in the city. Another factor that contributes to high levels of spm is domestic chulhas . About 70 per cent of the cooking ovens are tola unun , open chulhas that can be stored away after use. They use low quality coal, wood and dried cow dung for fuel which gives rise to spm and carcinogenic chemicals. Dipankar Chakraborti, a physician, says that the contribution of these open chulhas to pollution is significant. It is specially noticeable in the winter evenings.

The 500- mw Budge Budge power plant has just been commissioned by the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation (cesc). Asked about the precautions taken to check the pollution due to fly ash, one of the main sources of spm , a spokesperson of the cesc said that it is equipped with the latest esp with efficiency of 99.85 per cent. The other cesc thermal plants are at Titagarh, Shyamnagar, Metiabruz and New Kashipur. The spokesperson claims that all these plants meet the environmental guidelines set by the wbpcb . But an environmental engineer informed dte on the condition of anonymity that there were complaints against the Titagarh plant by a local group that fly ash was used to fill up ponds in nearby areas.

Following sc directives, puc certificates for vehicles have been made mandatory in Calcutta. But it is more than apparent that this is an ineffective way to curb pollution as they are easily available for a ridiculously low price. According to a ju researcher, if the traffic rules are followed without fail, 90 per cent of the cars would be off the city roads. In 1993, in a meeting at the Calcutta State Transport Corporation, chief minister Jyoti Basu admitted that the state transport buses were adding to the pollution. To curb the number of cars on city roads, a system of odd and even number plate days was proposed, but it was never implemented.

Nath says that only an environmentally sustainable transport programme can mitigate pollution levels in the city. "Some hard decisions must be taken," he says. His suggestions include increasing the road percentage and more no-traffic zones. "We didn't envisage environment friendly land use planning. Had we taken notice of this aspect in the 1960s, Calcutta would have had 12-15 per cent road surface today and many of the present problems would not have been there at all."

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Bhopal: towards disaster zone

The number of premature deaths due to high levels of spm in Bhopal are estimated to have decreased from 663 in 1991-92 to 623 in 1995. Similarly, the incidence of illnesses have also gone down from 2,77,854 to 2,61,205 over the given period. But despite the data giving happy signs, the report filed by the dte reporter reveals that Bhopal may steadily be turning into a gas chamber.

A report prepared by the Environment Protection and Coordination Organisation (epco), Bhopal, on the state of environment in Madhya Pradesh says that the situation of alarming. In Bhopal, spm levels have increased to ten times the acceptable Indian limit of 100 g/cum for residential areas. The report is silent over which period the increase was noted but Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board (mppcb) says it was between 1988 and 1995.

In Bhopal, high levels of spm are mainly attributable to auto emissions and the Govindpura industrial estate. According to the mppcb , air pollution in the Govindpura industrial estate is rising because of the cumulative effect of industrial units as well as heavy traffic, including large numbers of trucks. But no particular industrial unit is exceeding the limit, mppcb adds.

The number of vehicles registered in Bhopal jumped from less than 1,00,000 in 1985 to 3,22,200 in August 1997. About 35 per cent of the vehicles run on diesel and are a major source of spm . Diesel jeeps are particularly popular in Bhopal. But increase in the number of vehicles is not the only cause of air pollution. Adulteration of fuel is also responsible. The mppcb says that 90 per cent of petrol and diesel dealers sell adulterated fuel. Despite random checks and punitive measures by district authorities, the problem continues. Moreover, some autorickshaw drivers have learned to mix huge quantities of kerosene in petrol. Though this damages the piston frequently, a change of piston is much cheaper than using petrol, which is priced at Rs 25 per litre as against kerosene that is available at Rs 3.5 per litre in Bhopal. Even engine lubricating oil that is sold loose is often made locally and is of inferior quality. These affect the overall performance of vehicles, again leading to high levels of spm .

Air quality is regularly monitored at three junctions of the city by the mppcb , namely Hamidia road, Govindpura and South Tatya Topa Nagar. Data reveal that annual average levels of spm in Bhopal have decreased from 279.2 g/cum in 1990 to 206.36 g/cum in 1995. However, mppcb data for 1996 and 1997 indicates that spm levels again increased over the last two years. In a two-day emissions check in the second week of September 1997, 57 per cent of vehicles in the city were found to be violating the acceptable limits. What makes the present levels of spm alarming is that there are no thermal power plants or pollution-causing industrial units in Bhopal. Also, most parts of new Bhopal have adequate green cover.

Though there has been no study to monitor the increase in pulmonary problems to establish their link with air pollution, doctors say that such ailments have increased by about 20 per cent. Pradeep Prahalad, a general practitioner (gp) in Bhopal, says there has been a marked increase in the incidence of pulmonary problems over the last few years. The numbers of cases rise in winters when the air is still. Naeem Khan Agha, another gp , concurs. He says that an increasing number of children are developing bronchial allergies in Bhopal and most of them come from polluted areas.

Sathinath Sarangi works at Sambhavna, a local ngo that funds a free clinic in the city. He says that there has been a steady increase in the number of cases of allergic bronchitis that are not limited to those exposed to the leakage of methyl isocyanate (mic) gas from the Union Carbide plant on December 4, 1984.

After the gas disaster, Bhopal should have been made an example of a pollution-free city. But unfortunately, air pollution is at its worst today in the city. Auto emissions and lack of motivation on the part of the authorities are much to blame.

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Pune: a contradictory picture

Pune has enjoyed the reputation of being one of the cleanest cities in the country with regard to air quality. The number of premature deaths in Pune is estimated to have decreased from 991 in 1991-92 to 454 in 1995. Similarly, illnesses due to air pollution have decreased from 5,65,372 to 2,59,181 during the given period. Annual average level of spm in 1991-92 in the city was 196.6 g/cum. In 1995, it dropped to 129.5 g/cum. From these figures, it would appear that lower levels of spm as reported by the cpcb would have resulted in improvement of the status of public health in Pune. dte was eager to find out why levels of spm could have decreased in Pune over this period.

The city is surrounded on three sides by the Sahyadri mountain range. The eastern side is open. This geological formation has put some natural constraints on air circulation across the city. Small-scale industrial units have been mushrooming on the three hilly sides within a radius of about 20 km. The resultant smoke, dense particles, hot air and solid waste contradict the "clean city" image of Pune.

There are no large industrial units such as refineries or thermal power stations in Pune. But it is known as the auto capital of the country with two of the biggest automobile companies, the Tata Electrical and Locomotives Company (telco, the largest manufacturers of trucks in the country) and Bajaj Scooters (India's largest manufacturers of two-wheelers), based in the city. Ironically, the auto factories are not causing environmental problems in the city. The main pollutant in the city is auto emissions from petrol-driven scooters that have two-stroke engines. On an average, 250-300 vehicles are registered with the regional transport office every day. At present, about 550,000 of the 800,000 vehicles on Pune's roads are two-wheelers. In 1993-94, about 80,000 two-wheelers were sold in the state of Maharashtra, 58,000 of these in Pune.

Recently, the municipal and state authorities have raised the floor space index for residential and commercial constructions in Pune. This has resulted in increase of high rise buildings. The combination of narrow lanes, tall buildings and a large number of scooters (which in some cases have to be parked on the second floor) has increased the levels of spm to dangerous levels. The acceptable level of SPM is 500 g/cum. It has reached levels of 800-1000 g/cum. The worst victims in Pune are the traffic police personnel. A survey conducted in June 1996 revealed that 80 to 85 per cent of traffic police personnel suffer from various ailments, diseases and disorders connected with high levels of spm . There is a marked rise in respiratory problems, sinusitis, lung infections, eye and skin irritation, insomnia, stress and diabetes. Municipal records for the number of people suffering from tuberculosis has risen from 617 in 1992 to 850 in 1996. Clearly, despite the lack of polluting industries and thermal power plants, Pune may be witnessing an increase in spm levels. The lion's share of the blame goes to two-stroke engines that make up for more than 67 per cent of the total vehicle population. Small-scale industries also stand to blame.

Slow murder continues
Air quality in Indian cities is deteriorating at a shocking rate. While major cities such as Delhi and Calcutta face severe air pollution problems, the emergent picture is none too good in smaller cities. Even as cpcb data indicate an improvement in air quality in cities such as Pune, Bhopal and Agra, dte reporters found no evidence to support this. In fact they found that air pollution due to spm emissions may even be on the rise. The inferences drawn by the dte reporters are based on general opinions and the data obtained during their field visits is limited.

There are two reasons why the air quality data reported by the cpcb for Pune, Bhopal and Agra does not match with the assessment made by dte reporters. Firstly, the data on ambient air quality does not reflect emissions from vehicles and is therefore not indicative of the deteriorating trend perceived by dte reporters. Secondly, it is possible that even though auto emissions are on the rise in cities like Pune, Agra and Bhopal, meteorological factors -- such as wind velocity -- affect the spm levels. While cpcb monitoring takes account of these physical factors, dte reporters could not include them in their assessment during the field visits. Nevertheless, it is clear that hardly any effective measures have been taken to curb pollution over the past few years.

The number of vehicles, especially diesel vehicles, are rising at a frightening rate. The situation in Delhi, Calcutta and Bhopal proves this beyond doubt. The concept of puc certificates is a farcical exercise in most cities visited. There is no reason not to assume that the puc certificate is in any way effectual in combating pollution. Even if emissions are within permissible levels, the alarming rise in the number of vehicles would prevent the pollution load from coming down. In places such as Agra, closure of thermal power plants is leading to rising numbers of diesel generators. Lawyer M C Mehta may have earned a name and awards for himself following his petitions in the sc but these have largely failed in controlling the levels of pollution in Agra. In Delhi, government officials are either blissfully unaware of the number of polluting industrial units or plainly incompetent in dealing with them despite the directives of the sc . Though esp s have been installed in thermal power plants in the city, nothing can be said about their effectiveness.

An important question mark is on the effectiveness of following Western models in developing countries such as India to estimate the health effects due to pollution. In order to get a clear picture of problems in India, there should be a model that takes all the local parameters into consideration. Given the complete lack of epidemiological studies in India, there is no doubt that models from developed countries provide some insight into the health impacts of environmental degradation. But it is crucially important to have reliable local estimates of health damages due to air pollution as they provide means of evaluating the results of pollution control measures.

The wb study by Carter Brandon claims that its estimates are conservative as many factors such as standard of living, nutrition and health -- that are generally poor in India -- have not been considered in their model. So it underestimates the number of premature deaths and sicknesses. A previous story by Anil Agarwal in dte (Vol 5, No 10) had analysed several unaccounted environmental costs in the wb study. The need for developing a model more suitable to India has never been greater. Air pollution in India needs to be taken very seriously at all levels.

Written by Priti Kumar with inputs from Anumita Roy Choudhury and Shefali Verma (New Delhi), Sonia Kapoor (Agra), Ranjita Biswas (Calcutta), Nasir Kamal (Bhopal),and Arun Bapat (Pune).