‘Green Revolution’ was coined 57 years ago this month; it is time to reassess its legacy
India’s independence in 1947 came with a pressing challenge: widespread food insecurity and insurmountable hunger. The scars of the Bengal famine, which claimed nearly 3.8 million lives, were still fresh, and the nation struggled with low agricultural productivity and heavy dependence on food imports.
Often described as a “ship-to-mouth” economy, India’s food supply relied on urgent shipments from abroad to prevent mass starvation. However, over the decades, India undertook a remarkable agricultural transformation, evolving from a food-deficit nation into a global agricultural powerhouse. Today, agriculture remains the backbone of India’s economy, employing nearly 45 per cent of the labour force. India has not only achieved self-sufficiency but has also emerged as one of the world’s largest agricultural exporters, with total agricultural exports valued at $49 billion in 2023-24.
As the world’s largest producer of milk, jute, and pulses and the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, and cotton, agriculture gradually became the cornerstone of India’s economy. India’s agricultural transformation is a testament to strategic policy-making and scientific innovations. These transformations did not happen overnight; it was the result of deliberate policies, technological innovations, and institutional support nurtured from the seeds of the Green Revolution in India.
Green Revolution: Transforming India’s agrarian economy
The ‘Green Revolution’, a term coined by William S Gaud in 1968, marked a critical juncture in global agriculture by significantly boosting food production, particularly in wheat and rice. In India, M S Swaminathan, often termed as the “Father of Green Revolution”, spearheaded the scientific advancements to revolutionise India’s agriculture sector. Backed by bold policy support from Chidambaram Subramaniam, the then Minister of Food and Agriculture, these transformations not only secured India’s food future but also redefined its agricultural destiny forever. Key to such transformations was the adoption of High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds integrated with enhanced irrigation, fertiliser subsidies and farm mechanisation. Initially benefiting wheat production, these advancements later expanded to rice cultivation, supported by major irrigation projects like Bhakra-Nangal and Damodar Valley. Thanks to the Green Revolution, India’s rice production soared from 34.58 million tonnes in 1960 to 137.82 MMT in recent years, solidifying its status as one of the leading rice producers in the world. While the development of HYV wheat led to a substantial increase in the production of food grains, it was policies that provided the much-needed impetus for Green Revolution to succeed. The government’s intervention through Minimum Support Prices (MSP) and procurement mechanisms, primarily through the Food Corporation of India, provided economic security to farmers. Additionally, access to institutional credit replaced exploitative landlord loans, enabling farmers to invest in mechanisation and modern farming practices.
The Green Revolution’s impact extended beyond productivity gains, influencing global agricultural policies. The strategy was based on the premise that technology spillovers across political and agroclimatic boundaries could be captured through international public goods institutions. Research centres such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) played a crucial role in adapting scientific advancements for developing nations. However, disparities in adoption rates persisted. By 1998, modern varieties covered 82 per cent of cropland in Asia but only 27 per cent in Africa, highlighting regional inequalities in technological diffusion. Calls for a ‘second Green Revolution’ (GR 2.0) have emerged, emphasising sustainable agricultural practices, smallholder competitiveness, and climate resilience.
Unintended consequences of the Revolution
While the Green Revolution ensured food security, its long-term implications have been profound. The widespread use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides led to soil degradation, groundwater depletion, and loss of biodiversity, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Additionally, its benefits were unevenly distributed, favouring states with access to irrigation while leaving rain-fed regions in eastern and southern India struggling to catch up. State governments’ policy of free electricity contributed to unsustainable groundwater extraction. According to CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) estimates, around 80 per cent of Punjab’s water units are categorised as ‘overexploited’. This raises strong questions on source sustainability.
The Green Revolution also exacerbated inequalities between large and small farmers. While wealthier farmers could invest in advanced technologies, smallholders found themselves burdened with rising costs and dwindling profitability, often trapped in cycles of debt. The impact of climate change, erratic monsoons, declining water tables, and extreme weather events, has further intensified these challenges. Moreover, government policies on farm power and fertiliser subsidies have strained both natural resources and state finances. Originally designed to drive agricultural expansion, such subsidies have now become pressing environmental and economic implications, necessitating urgent policy reforms.
What can we expect for the future
While India has made tremendous progress in food production, food security remains a pressing issue. India ranks 111th out of 125 in the 2023 Global Hunger Index, highlighting that increased agricultural output has not necessarily translated into improved nutrition for all.
The future of Indian agriculture must strike a delicate balance between productivity and sustainability to ensure long-term food security and farmer welfare. Beyond food grains, India has also strengthened its position in marine product exports through the Blue Revolution, spurred by initiatives like Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY). In 2023-24, India’s marine product exports reached a record $ 7.1 billion, with shrimp leading the sector. Additionally, horticulture production in India touched 355.25 million tonnes in 2023-24, surpassing food grain output, indicating a shift towards diversification potential in Indian agriculture.
To secure the future of Indian agriculture, policies must prioritise not just productivity but also the income augmentation of smallholder farmers, who form the backbone of the sector. Strengthening value chains, improving market access, integrating renewable energy solutions like agrivoltaics, diversification into high-value cultivation and increasing productivity of inland aquaculture can enhance farmers’ livelihoods while ensuring sustainability. The need of the hour is a holistic approach that combines technological innovation, institutional support, and equitable resource distribution to transform Indian agriculture into a resilient and inclusive growth engine.
Tanya Mittal is with the Tata Institute of Social Sciences; Subhodeep Basu is with ICRIER
Views expressed are the authors’ own and don’t necessarily reflect those of Down To Earth