With rising seas, India’s coastlines confront the dual crises of ecological loss and socio-economic upheaval

India’s coastline, stretching over 7,500 kilometres, is a hub of cultural vibrancy, economic activity and biodiversity. Yet, this shoreline and its inhabitants face an escalating threat: rising sea levels driven by climate change. While the phenomenon of sea level rise (SLR) is a global challenge caused by thermal expansion and melting ice caps, India’s vast and densely populated coastal regions are particularly vulnerable.

Addressing SLR is not just an environmental imperative — it is a socio-economic and humanitarian necessity.

SLR is primarily driven by two processes linked to global warming. First, as the atmosphere heats, the ocean absorbs this heat, causing seawater to expand — a phenomenon known as thermal expansion. Second, the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps adds water volume to the oceans.

Since 1880, global sea levels have risen by approximately 20 centimetres. If greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated, projections indicate this figure could soar by up to 1.2 metres by the end of the century. 

For India, this spells catastrophic consequences, particularly for major urban centres like Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. These cities, critical to the national economy, are at heightened risk of severe flooding, infrastructural damage and freshwater contamination.

How coastal livelihoods are impacted

The socio-economic repercussions of SLR extend beyond  metropolitan infrastructure, deeply affecting rural and coastal communities. Communities reliant on fishing, agriculture and tourism face existential threats.

For instance, in Odisha’s Satabhaya village, relentless erosion and coastal flooding have forced 571 households to relocate inland. Such relocations are only the beginning; without robust adaptation measures, countless other coastal settlements could face a similar fate.

Fishing, a livelihood for millions, is particularly vulnerable as rising salinity and habitat destruction disrupt breeding grounds and reduce fish stocks. This directly impacts food security and financial stability, especially in economically marginalised regions.

Agriculture, another cornerstone of rural coastal economies, is under severe strain. Salinisation of soil due to seawater intrusion renders land unfit for most crops, threatening livelihoods and food production. The resulting decline in cultivable land exacerbates food price inflation and increases reliance on non-local food sources, thereby compromising national food security.

India’s coastal habitats are crucial not only for human livelihoods but also as biodiversity hotspots. Mangrove forests, coral reefs, estuaries and wetlands provide habitats for diverse species while acting as natural barriers against storm surges and erosion. For example, the mangroves of the Sundarbans serve as buffers against cyclones and tidal surges, protecting inland areas from severe damage. However, SLR poses a significant threat to these ecosystems.

The Sundarbans, the world’s largest contiguous mangrove forest, could lose up to 80 per cent of its area by 2100, endangering biodiversity and exposing local communities to the full force of cyclones and floods. Similarly, the nesting grounds of Olive Ridley turtles on Odisha’s coast are at risk due to rising flooding and erosion, disrupting their breeding cycles and food sources.

Coral reefs, vital fish nurseries, are also under threat from warming waters and rising seas. The destruction of these habitats could trigger species extinction and disrupt food chains, with consequences that extend far beyond the country’s borders.

Policy supporting community resilience

India has taken steps to address SLR, including regulatory measures and grassroots adaptation efforts. The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, introduced in 1991, is one of India's most critical statutory frameworks for managing coastal development. While it seeks to protect ecologically sensitive areas and enforce no-development zones, its implementation has been inconsistent, often neglecting the needs of vulnerable communities.

While the CRZ requires no-development zones and seeks to safeguard ecologically sensitive areas, there is an increasing need to adapt these laws to reflect the reality of climate change, such as rising sea levels and greater storm strength.

Disaster preparedness and support for displaced populations remain critical policy gaps. Relocation efforts, such as those for Satabhaya’s residents, are often reactive rather than proactive. Long-term strategies that include social safety nets, economic alternatives and community-based decision-making are essential for building resilience, particularly for resource-poor populations unable to adapt or relocate on their own.

Mitigating the impacts of SLR requires a multifaceted approach. The challenges that arise with SLR require varied responses. Some ways to lessen the impact of SLR include building sea walls, improving early warning systems and promoting sustainable coastal behaviours. Restoration of natural barriers such as mangroves and wetlands should also be prioritised. 

Mangrove afforestation, in particular, provides a cost-effective and environmentally beneficial method for reducing wave energy and preventing soil erosion. Governments should also examine novel approaches, such as floating agriculture and salt-resistant crop varieties, to help farmers in vulnerable areas.

Empowering coastal communities to participate actively in adaptation planning is equally important. Climate education and awareness initiatives can help communities prepare for future hazardsF and their participation in policymaking can guarantee that adaptation methods are both feasible and equitable. Working closely with these communities allows policymakers to create solutions that reflect local expertise and goals.

International cooperation is another critical component. India's commitment to achieving global climate targets must include efforts to acquire money and technical assistance for coastal resilience projects. As a member of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), India can argue for additional help from wealthy countries historically responsible for higher emissions. Such collaboration might help fund protective infrastructure, technology advancements and migration programs for affected populations.

Time to take action

India’s coastal regions face one of the most pressing challenges of the 21st century. Rising seas are not just an environmental crisis — they represent a socio-economic and humanitarian emergency requiring immediate and coordinated action. Policymakers, scientists and citizens must work together to safeguard the country’s coastlines and the livelihoods, ecosystems and cultural heritage they sustain.

Addressing SLR is both an environmental imperative and a societal responsibility. By investing in sustainable development and adaptation measures now, India can protect its coastal populations and ensure a resilient and vibrant future for its shores. Collective action — at local, national and international levels — is essential to preserving the legacy of India’s coastline for generations to come.

Ansuman Das is PhD Scholar, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research, OCC of Homi Bhabha National Institute; Pranaya Swain is Associate Professor, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research, OCC of Homi Bhabha National Institute

Views expressed are the author’s own and don’t necessarily reflect those of Down To Earth