A CSE forum discussed India’s battle against manual scavenging — why the fight to end it requires more than policy reform
Delhi-based think tank Centre for Science and Environment’s (CSE) Policy and Practice Forum recently hosted a significant discussion on manual scavenging, where various aspects of the issue were explored and debated.
The forum brought together sector experts, practitioners and academicians like Rohit Kakkar, deputy advisor at central government’s Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation; Dhawal Patil from non-profit Ecosan Services Foundation; Raman VR, expert in water and urban sanitation sector; Arkaja Singh; Avinash Krishnamurthy co-founder and director at Biome Environmental Trust; Manas Rath, practitioner; Yusuf Kabir from UNICEF; and Bhakti Devi, expert in the urban water and sanitation sector.
The debate began with the need for a clear understanding of what constitutes manual scavenging. Is “manual scavenging” entirely distinct from tasks such as the emptying or repair of confined sanitation spaces? The latter continues to be performed with dignity and professionalism worldwide, including in developed nations.
Equipment to ensure safety and remove potential hazards is widely available and its use is encouraged to mitigate risks. Has the historic practice of manual scavenging, a socially enforced labour linked to dry toilets, been entirely eradicated in India?
“Manual scavenger” means a person engaged or employed, at the commencement of this Act or at any time thereafter, by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pitinto which the human excreta from the insanitary latrines is disposed of, or on a railway track or in such other spaces or premises, as the central government or a state government may notify, before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner as may be prescribed and the expression manual scavenging shall be construed accordingly.
The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
The act of manually cleaning septic tanks and sewers — physically entering these spaces — is called manual scavenging. This practice carries caste and class dimensions, in addition to health and safety concerns and is therefore banned in India. However, despite the 2013 Act, manual scavenging persists in the country, necessitating public debate and on-the-ground action to highlight the issue and advocate for its eradication.
The discussion also emphasised that manual scavenging should not be conflated solely with “dry toilets.” It encompasses far more. While underground systems do require some form of manual intervention, should all manual work in these contexts be labelled as hazardous, especially when it continues to be dominated by caste dynamics and remains poorly paid and highly risky? In this light, eliminating manual scavenging requires more than just a technological fix.
The employment of individuals in manual scavenging is now prohibited, placing the responsibility on the employer rather than on the definition of manual scavenging itself. The key question is how to ensure no one is compelled to work in such conditions. Does the current law hinder better solutions, is another question that came up.
Addressing the socioeconomic and caste-based challenges linked to manual scavenging goes beyond the work itself; it also involves tackling the societal structures that allow such practices to continue. Secondly, it may not be fruitful to question why individuals engage in hazardous work — financial necessity often overrides concerns about health and safety. In some cases, unemployment may be preferable, considering the risks involved.
Therefore, attempting to understand the psychology behind participation in hazardous work, including manual scavenging, may be less important than focusing on eliminating the practice, reducing risks and addressing its caste and class dimensions.
Where manual entry into a sewer or septic tank is unavoidable, it should be a rare exception, thoroughly justified by the implementing authority, and carried out with full precautions and oversight. Without such measures, manual scavenging in its current form may never be fully eradicated in India.
Studies in Karnataka have highlighted the difficulties workers face in transitioning to alternative livelihoods. Establishing support systems that help manual scavengers move into safer, more stable employment, through training and the provision of alternative livelihoods that enhance employability, is critical. Unfortunately, the real challenges in achieving this are insufficiently understood due to a lack of primary research across different states in India.
There is a pressing need for city and state administrations to explore interventions and incentives aimed at abolishing manual scavenging and other hazardous activities. Technological solutions have not yet been deployed at a scale that eradicates all manual interfaces between workers and sanitation systems.
Creating genuine opportunities for these communities, investing in them, and providing support during their occupational transitions are vital steps that aee currently lacking in today’s ecosystem of sanitation and social justice institutions. The debate surrounding manual scavenging versus hazardous cleaning fails to capture this essential dimension.
Sanitation is largely driven by a technocratic focus on engineering, while social justice efforts are spearheaded by community and social activists. The latter often distrust the former, and there is insufficient dialogue occurs between the two.
We must break down these barriers of mistrust and listen to each other to evolve comprehensive solutions — the responsibility lies on both sides, though the technocratic side holds more privilege. Discussions on what constitutes manual scavenging and the challenges of ending the practice must enter the public domain more frequently.