Himalayan springs are cultural and ecological lifelines. But scientific studies on them remain fragmented: Vinod Kothari

Springs in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), of which Uttarakhand is a part, are speedily drying up. Several states — including Sikkim, Nagaland, and Uttarakhand — have launched spring shed revival programmes at scale since 2017. But the lack of a comprehensive spring inventory and data makes it challenging.

Vinod Kothari is a field practitioner and has worked on water in the Himalayas for almost two decades. He has also contributed to government thinktank Niti Ayog’s “Inventory and Revival of Springs in the Himalaya for Water Security”. Kothari is the executive director of Dehradun-based non-profit Himmotthan Society, an associate of Tata Trusts.

He recently explained to Down to Earth as to how a district-wise spring inventory based on spring data collected from two districts (Tehri and Almora) of Uttarakhand can aid spring revival programmes of the state. Excerpts:

Megha Prakash (MP): For the first time, a spring census was done for two districts of Uttarakhand. What is unique about this census?

Vinod Kothari (VK): A spring census was initiated in April 2025 by the Himmotthan Society in two hill districts, one each in the Garhwal and Kumaon administrative regions: Tehri and Almora respectively. The aim was to review the lean season discharge in the springs during the peak summer months of April, May and June.

The survey considered six important factors — location & ownership, water characteristics, infrastructure & measurement, environmental context, management & usage, community dependency — to map the springs.

Some 10,063 springs were mapped from 2, 413 villages across 17 blocks of these two districts. The springs included in the study were known to the community. The ones in the reserved forest (RF) area were not part of the study.

MP: Was the survey done within a short timespan? What approach was adopted to collect data?

VK: The census adopted a district-saturation approach, mapping every spring on civil land and nearby—active, seasonal, or dried. The survey was completed within 2.5 months. We chose to do the survey in peak summer months to precisely measure water discharge during the lean season. So, this data becomes crucial in devising a strategic plan or adopting a nature-based solution to revive the drying spring. This data is also essential to accurately track temporal variations in spring discharge during future monitoring efforts.

Over 100 trained para-hydrogeologists, equipped with standardised tools and mobile devices were deployed to collect data on 55 hydrological, spatial, ecological, and socio-economic parameters, supported by in-situ physical water quality parameter tests, discharge measurements, photographic documentation and community interviews with key informants. This integrated approach, combining real-time digital surveys with local knowledge, ensured scientific rigor, minimised errors, and generated one of the most comprehensive district-scale datasets on Himalayan springs.

MP: What were the key findings from the survey, and what parameters were studied?

VK: Based on the spring outlet structure, the types of springs were: free flow, Naula/Bawdi (traditional water systems) and seepage. Of the 10, 063 springs mapped, 5,618 (56 per cent) were free flow, 3,250 (32 per cent) were Naula/Bawdi and 1,195 (12 per cent) were seepage. Around 56 per cent of the Naulas were in Almora and eight per cent in Tehri Garhwal 

The terrain in Kumaon is more conducive to groundwater harvesting through Naulas (stone-lined reservoir that collects groundwater). Its valleys and slopes allow better percolation and collection of spring water compared to Garhwal, where rivers dominate the water landscape. Historically, Kumaon communities had more autonomy in managing natural resources, which allowed them to develop and sustain traditional water systems like Naulas.

In short, Kumaon’s unique blend of geology, culture, and historical governance fostered the widespread use and reverence of Naulas, making them more common than in Garhwal.

Eighty-one per cent of springs showed a discharge of less than 10 litres per minute (lpm) while one per cent springs had a discharge of 40-50 lpm. Lpm is a unit of volumetric flow rate, frequently used to measure the speed of pumps or other fluid systems.

Abandoned land in the two districts is showing double the rate of drying springs as compared to land under cultivation. Around 59 per cent of responses indicated 50 per cent reduction in spring lean season discharge in a decade. 

MP: How will a spring inventory help in restoring Uttarakhand’s lost springs?

VK: A major proportion of drinking water supply in the mountainous parts of Uttarakhand is spring-based, and a majority of the water supply schemes in the state have their origin in local springs. But springs, which are the main drinking water sources in rural Uttarakhand, are drying.

This can be attributed to decreasing availability and deteriorating quality of water and poor governance, all of which lead to conflicts related to water supply. Decline in winter rainfall reduces groundwater recharge, while rising temperatures increase evaporation losses. Changes in forest cover and species composition affect infiltration and sub-surface water storage.

Together, these factors have accelerated the drying of springs that once supported rural water security. Irregular rainfall has caused both flash floods and drought-like situations, harming farming and livelihoods in Uttarakhand.

Despite the importance, scientific studies on Himalayan springs remain fragmented across states and eco-regions, with very few efforts adopting a comprehensive, census-like approach.

Taking this fact into account, the results show a clear trend of springs drying across all types of land use, suggesting that the problem is widespread and not limited to a single land use type. Despite various water programs, dependence on natural springs continues to remain high. The survey of 2,413 villages found that nearly 86.4 per cent of households still rely on springs for drinking and domestic use at some point of time in a year. Meanwhile 76 per cent springs are showing a decreasing discharge trend since the last decade, based on the 10,063 springs surveyed.

This highlights that springs are not only cultural and ecological lifelines but also remain critical in bridging gaps where piped supply is seasonal, limited, or difficult to maintain in remote mountain areas.