Maharashtra and Karnataka have recorded farmer suicide rates 2.5 times the national average since the mid-1990s, according to a 28-year analysis of NCRB data.
More than 3.9 lakh farmers and agricultural labourers died by suicide between 1995 and 2023, with the crisis peaking in the early 2000s.
The rapid spread of Bt cotton, rising input costs and repeated crop failures played a major role in deepening distress in key regions.
Southern and western India account for nearly three-quarters of all farmer suicides, pointing to strong regional concentration.
Schemes such as MGNREGA helped reduce suicides after 2010, but recent data shows a sharp rise again in 2023, especially among agricultural labourers.
Maharashtra and Karnataka have remained the epicentres of farmer suicides in India for more than two decades, with suicide rates consistently about 2.5 times the national average since the mid-1990s, according to a new analysis of 28 years of National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data.
In 2023 alone, Maharashtra recorded 4,151 farmer suicides and Karnataka 2,423, making them the two worst-affected states in the country. One of the major drivers over the years has been the rapid spread of Bt cotton in the early 2000s, particularly across rain-fed regions, the analysis by independent research organization Centre for Sustainable Agriculture (CSA) found.
Based on state-wise suicide rates per 100,000 agricultural population using data from the NCRB, the study links the crisis in these states to the failure of Bt cotton to deliver on promises of higher yields and pest resistance. Instead, farmers faced sharply rising input costs and greater financial risk. Repeated crop failures, combined with the absence of reliable price support, pushed many small and marginal farmers into chronic debt.
Beyond Maharashtra and Karnataka, the data show a clear regional concentration of the crisis. Southern and western India together account for around 72.5 per cent of all farmer suicides recorded since 1995.
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana follow closely among the worst-affected states. Together, they have reported more than 170,000 farmer suicides over the past 28 years.
Telangana, which was carved out of Andhra Pradesh in 2014, has emerged as a high-crisis state in its own right. G V Ramanjaneyulu, executive director of CSA, said this reflects the geography of agrarian distress. The cotton-growing districts that became part of Telangana already carried a heavy suicide burden, while coastal Andhra Pradesh districts historically reported lower rates.
Madhya Pradesh has also consistently ranked among the top contributors to national suicide figures, underlining that the crisis is not confined to a single region.
Overall, the scale of the crisis remained large. Between 1995 and 2023, at least 394,206 farmers and agricultural labourers died by suicide in India, according to NCRB records. This amounts to an average of about 13,600 deaths every year.
The analysis noted that the crisis intensified after India joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. Reduced subsidies and increased agricultural imports weakened farm incomes, particularly for small producers.
The most acute phase came between 2000 and 2009, when more than 154,000 suicides were recorded. The year 2002 stands out as the deadliest, with 17,971 farmer suicides nationwide.
After years of decline, the trend reversed sharply in 2023. The country recorded 10,786 farmer suicides, an increase of more than 75 per cent compared with 2022.
The figures also reveal a significant shift within the rural economy. Agricultural labourers now account for a larger share of suicides than cultivators. Of the 10,786 deaths recorded in 2023, 6,096 were agricultural labourers, compared with 4,690 cultivators.
Researchers linked this to a combination of droughts, collapsing crop prices, weak crop insurance, and shrinking access to institutional credit. The growing share of suicides among agricultural labourers points to deeper rural distress. Unlike land-owning farmers, labourers face acute wage insecurity, seasonal unemployment, rising food prices and limited social protection, making them especially vulnerable to economic shocks.
The analysis cautioned, however, that part of the increase in 2023 may reflect delayed reporting during the Covid-19 period, rather than a sudden deterioration in a single year.
The sharp rise in 2023 contrasts with trends seen over much of the previous decade. From around 2010 onwards, farmer suicides declined steadily across several states, reaching their lowest levels between 2015 and 2019.
One of the key interventions during this period was the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), which provided wage employment during lean agricultural seasons and drought years. Alongside expanded crop insurance coverage and debt relief measures, MGNREGA helped reduce income volatility for small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers.
This decline was visible in several states. Kerala recorded a steep fall in farmer suicides, from 1,118 in 2005 to 105 in 2014. West Bengal reported zero farmer suicides by 2012, according to the NCRB data analysed. Madhya Pradesh, which had recorded some of the highest numbers during the peak crisis years, also saw sustained reductions during this period.
In states such as Maharashtra and Karnataka, where rain-fed agriculture and market-linked commercial crops continue to dominate, suicide numbers have remained persistently high despite welfare interventions, underscoring the limits of short-term relief in the absence of broader agrarian reform.