Growing emphasis on renewable energy could be an “underlying driver of intensified deforestation”, according to a study published in the journal Nature Communications on December 21, 2025.
Results indicated that between 2001 and 2012, 66.20 per cent of deforestation in mining areas occurred in regions where minerals were extracted, which could potentially be used for renewable energy production.
After 2012, a higher percentage of deforestation (74.88 per cent) was observed in mines targeting minerals required for renewable energy production, compared to those for non-renewable energy production (25.11 per cent). For instance, the mining of nickel—used in batteries for electric vehicles and energy storage systems—often involves large-scale changes to land use, including deforestation in regions rich in biodiversity.
The researchers, led by Xiaoxin Zhang from the University of Hong Kong, overlaid the global high-resolution forest loss and loss year layers with mining areas during 2001-2023 and compared deforestation rates between recorded and unrecorded mines.
The study encompasses 236,028 mining locations worldwide, including a substantial number of unrecorded mining operation sites and found significant deforestation linked to global mining activities in the 21st century.
The findings indicated that mining-related deforestation is approximately twice as high as the estimates reported in recent studies, largely due to the omission of the unrecorded mining activities.
Throughout the 21st century (2001-2023), 175 countries worldwide experienced deforestation in mining areas — mining has led to a total loss of 19,765 sq km of deforestation, contributing to 0.75 Pg CO2 emissions from 2001 to 2023.
Tropical forests were seriously affected, with 10,824 sq km of mining-driven deforestation accounting for 0.56 Pg CO2 in forest carbon emissions, making them visible as hotspots. Cold and temperate regions also faced considerable deforestation, with 5,162 sq km and 3,470 sq km of mining-driven deforestation, respectively.
Between 2001 and 2023, the top 10 countries with the largest mining-linked deforestation made up 78.99 per cent of global deforestation, equating to 0.61 Pg CO2 in forest carbon emissions.
Indonesia experienced the highest deforestation in mining areas, representing 21.72 per cent (4,292.33 sq km) of total deforestation and 0.22 Pg CO2 in carbon emissions. Russia and Brazil followed, accounting for 10.81 per cent and 10.58 per cent of global mining-related deforestation respectively, which correspond to 0.03 Pg CO2 and 0.12 Pg CO2.
The findings showed that in the tropical biomes, unrecorded mining activities played a more prominent role in mining-related deforestation, as seen in countries such as Peru (99.95 per cent), Myanmar (98.26 per cent), and Venezuela (94.43 per cent).
Results also showed that a total of 7,441 global protected areas has been or are currently affected by mining activities.
Among various mining materials, gold and coal mines have dominated mining-related deforestation. Large-scale deforestation linked to unrecorded gold mining operations has been rampant in tropical countries, such as Brazil, Peru, Ghana, and Suriname.
These mining activities, often characterised by artisanal small-scale practices with inadequate rehabilitation measures, also contribute to soil and water pollution posing threats to indigenous health. The surge in gold prices has further fueled illegal mining activities, accelerating the losses of protected forests in Amazonian regions. The informal mining operations, marked by low barriers to entry and less-skill requirements are prevalent in rural communities in Africa and South Asia.
It is estimated that 40-150 million people in the low-and middle-income countries rely directly or indirectly on artificial small-scale mining for their livelihoods.
The study recommends that promoting forest-smart mining policies is critical in these low-income countries, enabling them to benefit from the increasing demand for minerals essential to transitioning to a decarbonised economy while minimising the environmental impacts of their extraction.
As the global energy system shifts toward renewable sources, the demand for metals is expected to continue rising. While renewable energy production can mitigate climate change and promote a low-carbon economy, unchecked growth in metal demand could severely degrade forests and pose other environmental challenges.