In Junnar, the birthplace of the renowned warrior Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, a heated debate has emerged over a critical issue: leopards. Once celebrated as a model of human-leopard coexistence, the Junnar Forest Division in northwestern Maharashtra has now become a focal point for escalating human-leopard conflicts. In 2024, the region experienced eight human fatalities due to leopard encounters in 10 months, as of November. Junnar is not alone in facing such challenges; similar conflicts have arisen in other areas across India, including Pauri-Garhwal in Uttarakhand and Udaipur and Rajsamand in Rajasthan.
Today, human-leopard conflict has evolved beyond being an ecological or social issue; it now carries significant political implications. In Maharashtra, political leaders and animal rights activists are at odds over proposed solutions to mitigate the problem. Researchers who claimed that Junnar was a model for coexistence, who hugely benefitted from the claims, have long disappeared from the landscape leaving the communities, authorities and political leaders at loggerheads.
If India’s wildlife species are to be supported and empathised by the society in the coming decades, it will be crucial to address the negative interactions communities face with two major conflict-prone species: elephants and leopards. Both species cause significant damage, posing serious threats to livelihoods and instilling fear in communities, as they are capable of killing or causing permanent injuries to people.
Despite widespread antagonism toward these species, no successful scalable model has evolved to effectively reduce the impact leopards have on communities and vice versa. This challenge is partly rooted in the ecology of the leopard—its adaptability. This characteristic has proven to be both a blessing and a curse for this spotted feline. Leopards’ remarkable ability to thrive in diverse habitats presents yet another challenge: managing their growing numbers.
A question that often arises in wildlife discussions is, “How many are there?” India’s leopard population is officially estimated at 13,874. However, this number reflects only the leopards in tiger reserves and other forests where studies were conducted to assess the population of tigers, the national animal. Leopards, however, inhabit areas far beyond tiger-bearing habitats. Consequently, India’s actual leopard population may be closer to 25,000, making it the largest leopard population outside Africa. Given the leopard’s extensive geographic range, it is incredibly challenging—and likely unfeasible—to conduct a scientific count across the entire nation.
While we lack current or historical benchmark data on leopard populations for the entire country, current estimates indicate that these cats are at an ecologically stable level. Our research in Karnataka suggests the state is home to around 2,500 leopards.
Although leopards are found outside protected areas and even in human-dominated landscapes, their numbers in these areas are lower and they face higher risk of unnatural mortality. However, their range appears to be expanding, with leopards now seen in regions where they were previously unreported. This expansion raises new challenges, particularly in terms of safety for people and livestock, as natural prey outside protected zones is limited. Many studies emphasise that the availability of natural prey is crucial to minimising leopard conflicts.
While claims that underplay the importance of natural habitat and prey may garner support and funding for further ecological research, they risk oversimplifying the issue, potentially doing a disservice to both communities and leopards. Most solutions focus on promoting coexistence (which is important) as the only approach but fail to address the rapid loss of natural habitats and prey, which are key drivers of conflict. Such misguided priorities and projections risk negatively impacting both the leopard population and surrounding communities, rather than providing real support.
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The use of inappropriate data tools in scientific studies has sometimes misled society about human-leopard conflict. For instance, a study in Karnataka, based solely on media reports, claimed that leopards occupy 47 per cent of areas outside protected zones, or 84,000 sq km of the state’s geography.
Our latest research, grounded in ecological data rather than the previous study based on media reports, reveals that only 30 per cent—approximately 57,537 sq km—of Karnataka’s total geographical area (191,791 sq km) is suitable as leopard habitat. Notably, around 15,000 sq km of this habitat lies outside officially designated forest areas, including rocky outcrops managed by the revenue department, plantations and agricultural fields that offer adequate cover for leopards. This means about 75 per cent of Karnataka’s leopards live within protected zones (protected areas and reserved forests), emphasising the importance of these natural habitats for conservation and indicating areas where human-leopard conflict management needs attention.
Use of wrong data tools can lead to the misconception that leopards are found throughout the state, reducing the perceived need for focused conservation. For instance, an environmental impact assessment for a mining project cited the media-based study to justify mining in leopard habitats, claiming that leopards are widespread in Karnataka and therefore destruction of its habitat was not a risk. While scientific data is essential, it must be grounded in thorough fieldwork, especially about sensitive topics like wildlife conflict, as inaccurate inferences can result in policies that endanger leopards and exacerbate conflict.
In many areas, conflict with leopards is often perceived rather than substantiated. The economic prospects of both urban and rural populations in India have shifted significantly with the country’s growing economy. Alongside economic growth, access to technology has become widespread and more affordable. However, information availed from modern gadgets is often misused. CCTV (closed-circuit television) installations, now common in both rural and urban households, have made leopards more “visible” than before. These visuals often cause panic and serve as sources of misinformation, amplifying fear and sparking demands for leopard capture. From 2009 to 2016, some 357 adult leopards were captured in Karnataka, and this number has since risen, making it challenging even to document such captures. Capturing and translocating leopards can worsen conflicts but presents a dilemma. Communities, understandably, strive to protect their livestock and lives. Therefore, simply promoting “coexistence” as a solution offers limited help. Practical, locally feasible measures to address human-leopard conflict, continuous outreach efforts, and demonstrable, long-term successes are essential for meaningful progress.
Just as information from technology is often misused, so too is misguided enthusiasm. At a recent conference on human-wildlife conflict at Kanha Tiger Reserve, a prominent leopard researcher claimed that conflict in all states where they had offered “recommendations” had magically declined. The irony, however, was that this claim lacked peer-reviewed data, and those states remain epicentres of human-leopard conflict. This raises the question: how do such unfounded claims benefit either the communities or the leopards?
Human-leopard conflict in India is a complex issue without a one-size-fits-all solution that addresses both wildlife conservation and human well-being. Tackling this challenge requires not only practical measures but also an empathetic approach that considers the needs of both people and leopards.
Interactions between humans and leopards are dynamic, influenced by rapidly changing natural habitats, the adaptability of leopards, and, to a smaller extent, the use of technology. Addressing this requires long-term field presence to support communities, robust policies, and proactive conservation action to protect leopard habitats and prey. If these principles are genuinely embraced, India can move toward a future where leopards and people coexist in harmony, securing a stable future for both its biodiversity and rural communities.
Short-term projects, prescriptive science, and an attitude of shirking responsibility among some ecologists are not only ineffective but also risk escalating negative perceptions among communities that bear the brunt of conflict. This approach may ultimately increase retaliation against the very species from which we derive accolades, funding, and, notably, recognition.
(Sanjay Gubbi holds a doctorate in leopard ecology and is the author of the book Leopard Dairies: The Rosette in India)
This was first published in the State of India’s Environment 2025