Decentralised water conservation structures are critical for India, not as substitutes, but as complements to large irrigation systems

India’s irrigation story has long been told through large dams and canal networks. For decades, policy has focused on expanding major and medium irrigation projects to create irrigation potential. Yet, much of this discourse has treated large infrastructure and decentralised water systems as separate domains. The real question today is no longer how much we build, but how effectively water reaches farms, interacts with local water systems, and ultimately sustains livelihoods. Recent field-based assessments across irrigation command and adjoining non-command areas point to a more complex reality. While large irrigation projects do create potential, their benefits are unevenly distributed and often extend beyond officially designated command areas. In several project regions, villages outside command areas have also witnessed improvements in cropping intensity, farm incomes, and agricultural productivity. These gains are driven by indirect processes such as groundwater recharge, improved connectivity, and localised spillovers from intensified agriculture.

At the same time, disparities persist within command areas. Farmers located at the head of canals typically receive assured water supply, while those at the tail-end often face shortages and turn to groundwater as a fallback. This uneven access highlights a deeper structural issue.

A critical paradox defines India’s irrigation landscape: while public investment remains concentrated in large projects, actual irrigation use is largely sustained by decentralised systems. These include not only wells and tube wells, but also local water infrastructure such as check dams, water harvesting tanks, recharge pits, and field bunding structures. By slowing surface runoff and enhancing soil moisture, these interventions play a crucial role in sustaining agriculture, particularly in water-stressed regions.

Examples from states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan illustrate this well. In Gujarat, widespread construction of check dams and farm ponds has significantly improved groundwater levels in several districts, enabling farmers to stabilise crop production. Rajasthan offers a compelling illustration through the revival of traditional water harvesting systems such as johads. In districts like Alwar, community-led efforts to restore johads—small earthen check dams designed to capture and store rainwater—have led to a visible rise in groundwater levels. Seasonal rivers that had long dried up have shown signs of revival, and previously fallow lands have been brought under cultivation. Farmers report higher cropping intensity and a gradual shift towards more remunerative crops, supported by improved water availability. Similar outcomes have been observed in parts of Maharashtra, where watershed development and farm pond initiatives have helped improve water availability and stabilise agricultural incomes in drought-prone regions. In Telangana, the restoration of traditional tanks under Mission Kakatiya has improved local water storage and supported agricultural recovery in several districts.

The impact extends beyond agriculture. With more reliable water access, households have reduced their dependence on seasonal migration and expanded local employment opportunities. Higher and more stable incomes have enabled investments in housing, livestock, and education. Improved water access has also reduced the burden on women, freeing up time for other productive activities. These outcomes illustrate how small-scale water systems can generate wide-ranging economic and social benefits. Such experiences suggest that the effectiveness of irrigation investments cannot be assessed in isolation from the local water systems that sustain them.

Evidence from field surveys conducted by the National Council of Applied Economic Research across 20 states, covering 57 major irrigation projects at the behest of the Central Water Commission, reinforces these observations. It represents one of the most extensive field-based assessments of irrigation impacts in recent years.

Beyond the creation of irrigation potential, improved access to water has led to significant changes in rural economies. Farmers have increased cropping intensity and diversified towards higher-value crops. More stable farm incomes have reduced seasonal migration and enabled greater investment in assets, education, and healthcare.

These findings highlight that irrigation is not merely about water delivery—it is about enabling broader rural transformation. However, the extent of these benefits varies across regions, depending on how effectively large infrastructure interacts with local water systems and institutions.

There is also a growing sustainability concern. Even within canal command areas, farmers increasingly rely on groundwater due to its reliability and flexibility. Without adequate recharge, this trend risks depleting already stressed aquifers. Here, decentralised water conservation structures become critical—not as substitutes, but as complements to large irrigation systems.

Policy initiatives such as micro-irrigation under the “Per Drop More Crop” programme reflect a growing emphasis on efficiency in water use. However, these efforts often remain fragmented and disconnected from the broader irrigation ecosystem. There is a need for a more integrated approach that links large irrigation infrastructure with local water systems and groundwater management. More fundamentally, this calls for a shift from a project-centric view to a systems perspective—one that evaluates irrigation not merely in terms of potential created, but in terms of actual outcomes such as water use efficiency, livelihood improvements, and long-term sustainability.

India’s irrigation challenge is no longer about expanding access alone; it is about managing water more intelligently and equitably across scales. As pressures on water resources intensify, the focus must shift from simply creating infrastructure to improving how water is stored, distributed, and used. Large dams and canal systems will continue to play a critical role in supporting agriculture and regional water security. At the same time, thousands of small, decentralised structures—such as check dams, tanks, and recharge systems—quietly sustain groundwater levels, buffer climate variability, and underpin rural livelihoods.

Recognising the complementarities between these systems is essential. Large infrastructure can provide scale and stability, while local water systems enhance resilience, efficiency, and last-mile access. When designed and managed together, they can reinforce each other—canals supporting recharge, and local systems improving water retention and utilisation.

The future of irrigation, therefore, lies not in choosing between the big and the small, but in integrating the two within a coherent, systems-based approach—one that places equal emphasis on sustainability, efficiency, and livelihood outcomes.

Saurabh Bandyopadhyay, Laxmi Joshi, Charu Jain and Kushagra Thakral work with NCAER

Views expressed are the authors’ own and don’t necessarily reflect those of Down To Earth