A dying craft

A dying craft

PYROMETALLURGY, or the process of producing iron, was introduced in India around the second millennium BC. The Harappan people were not familiar with iron, although they made artefacts from copper and bronze and jewellery from gold and silver. Production of iron and steel is mentioned in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas, which have been roughly dated by historians between 1500-1200 Bc. By the beginning of the first millennium BC, Indians were quite familiar with iron and steel and had begun using the metals in their day-to-day life.

Production of iron was always the speciality of a community of artisans known as the Agaria, who inhabited areas rich in iron-ore in central Bihar and Orissa. The story of the community is an account of the rise, fall and subsequent marginalisation of indigenous methods of iron production in India. It is also the story of the loss of an environmentally sound technique of smelting iron.
From myth to marginalisation The term 'Agaria', according to B Prakash of Benares Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, is derived from the root 'aag' or 'agni' (fire) "and probably means a worker who harnesses fire and has the power to convert minerals into metals". The Agarias consider them- selves to be the descendants of the 12 brothers of the mythical Lohasur. Over the years, Lohasur's kin were divided into three groups: the Asuras or the Agarias, the Loharsw and the Birjias. Unlike the Agarias and the Birjias, the Lohars do not smelt iron but purchase it from the former and make objects of use by forge welding, shaping and heat treatment.

The Agarias, or the Asuras, find mention in the Mahabharata. The Pandavas are said to have routed the Agaria king, Longundi Raja, and forced him to take refuge in the jungles. Even while inhabiting the forests, they pro- duced iron, which was used to manufacture weapons. The job of producing iron was carried out with the active involvement of all members of the family. The nuances of the process was handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth.

By the 19th century, the Agarias had spread from central Bihar and Orissa to the rest of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and eastern Uttar Pradesh.

In 1828, when England was struggling with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, Major James Franklin of the Bengal Army prepared a report for the East India Company on the Indian Mode of Manufacturing Iron in Central India. The apparent aim of the exercise was to determine whether the demand for iron in India could be met indigenously. Commenting on the quality of locally-produced iron, Franklin quoted a report of the Calcutta Mint: "...When brought to the bend, it (Indian iron) showed itself possessed of the power of elongating... and stood the bend better than the general run of British iron purchased in the bazaar..."

In the same period, a British metallurgist, Colonel Presgrave of Sagar Mint, compared Indian iron with its British and Swedish counterparts, and remarked: "...(Indian) bar iron (is) of most excellent quality, possessing all the desirable properties of malleability, ductility... and tenacity, for all of which I think it cannot be surpassed by the best Swedish iron..."

However, with increased dependence on British industry and the formal colonisation of India after 1857, production of iron in India came to a halt. Smelting of iron was banned, the Agarias lost their traditional occupation, and either migrated or became itinerants. According to Prakash, it was difficult to find representatives of the community by the 1960s and their traditional technology was believed to have been lost.
Rediscovery In 1964, Moni Ghose of the Tata Iron and Steel Company managed to locate some Agarias who still remembered the nuances of the craft. Ghose persuaded them to construct and operate their ancient iron-smelting furnaces at Jiragoda and Chiglabecha in Orissa, and Kamarjoda in Bihar. This was followed by attempts by others, including historians Dharampal and Mahesh Sharma in the 1980s, to locate Agarias and persuade them to return to their traditional occupation. In 1993-94, a group led by Sunil Sabasrabudby of the Institute of Gandhian Studies at Wardha, Maharashtra, came upon a number of Agaria villages in Sonebhadra, Wadrufnagar, Surguja, Jaspur and Mandla in Madhya Pradesh, where the tribals still practised their ancient craft. The group conducted a techno-economic and sociological study of these people and published its report in 1994.

The Agaria technique
In the traditional Agaria technique, iron ore is processed in a low shaft furnace built of clay. As Verrier Elwin points out in his seminal study, The Agarias, the ore used is usually of a low quality. In fact, Elwin states that low-grade ore is preferred even when rich ore is available. He also states that the Agarias can identify the ore by its colour, appearance and density.

The ore is usually collected from the surface. Digging is seldom resorted to and, on the occasions that it is, the shaft is no deeper than two metres. Ore-bearing sand washed up by rivers and streams is the other important source of iron. Sand from the river bed is collected and the ore separated in a unique gravity separation process. A sloping pan is made on the riverbank slightly above the water-level. The sand is laid on it and, by repeatedly pouring water on it, the lighter siliceous particles are washed out, leaving the heavier black ore particles. This ore is then collected and dried in the sun. Wherever available, this ore is the preferred source of the metal and is believed to yield better quality iron.

Unlike the modern iron and steel industry, which relies primarily on fossil fuels, the Agaria process of iron smelting is totally charcoal-based. The trees used for making charcoal vary from region to region, but the wood of sal and teak is preferred. According to Vibha Tripathi of the department of archaeology, BHU, "Mostly, charcoal is made ,from the wood of dead trees lying in the forests." She Asigns this preference to strict "religio- social prohibitions among the Agarias on indiscriminate cutting of trees".

The Agarias prepare a shallow pit with a layer of dry twigs and branches at the bottom. Logs are loosely piled on pp till they reach a little above ground level. The pile is then set on fire. As the logs bur the gradually collapses into the pl, which is then sealed off. The wood burns in an insufficient supply of air and forms charcoal.

Cultural ecology
According to R C Gupta of the department of metallurgical engineering, BHU, traditional techniques of producing iron did not harm the ecosystem: "Modern technology, which uses fossil fuels, has proved to be hazardous. So, while designing the process for future needs, factors like energy, environment and economy have to be kept in mind."

Gupta notes that pollution due to burning of fossil fuels is totally avoided in the traditional mode of production of iron. There are no coke ovens giving out noxious by-products like sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (N02). Charcoal contains a very small amount of sulphur and is far less polluting. Also, Tripathi points out, only deadwood is used as fuel by the Agarias. They mine the ore manually, causing minimal damage to the environment, and no loss to large-scale industry.

On the other hand, the mechanised process generates minute particles of iron called fines. Most of this iron is lost to the air. In the Agaria process, there is minimal generation of these particles and whatever is produced is washed away by river water.

The Agarias mostly live in small groups consisting of 10-12 families settled outside villages or in nearby jungles. They cater to the village economy with their cottage industry of iron products. Says Tripathi, "If the traditional craft is allowed to prosper, it will support a pre-industrial community, which can lead a life in tune with tradition and nature."

Ironic turn
However, those willing to understand and appreciate the Agaria way of life are few and far between. The Agaria technique of processing iron has been criti cised on the ground that it uses charcoal. An optimally operated furnace, say met allurgists, consumes about 15 kg of char coal for a charge of 10 kg ore, and the yield is not more than three kg. It is iron ic that while big industry is causing deforestation, a technique that uses charcoal made from deadwood is being labelled destructionist.

Sahasrabudhy's team discovered that, in 1994, furnaces operated by Agarias in Madhya Pradesh had been reduced from 100 to less than five - a result of enforcement of restrictions on the collection of iron ore and wood.

A glut of mass produced iron implements has also forced young Agarias to migrate to nearby towns, where they work as unskilled labourers. The num ber of artisans who still practise iron smelting is falling at an alarming rate. In effect, the socioeconomic fabric of this tribe of craftspeople has been ripped apart by the forces of modernisation. As their traditional occupation was dignified, many Agarias are keen on reviving it. But, as of now, it is a dying craft.